Todd Heinzman (valorieh@hotmail.com) December 6, 1999

Dave MacIntosh (woodtec@dreamscape.com)

Dan Shaver (backpack19@aol.com)

• The first fuel cell was constructed by Sir William Grove in 1839. It used porous platinum electrodes and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) as the electrolyte bath.

• Later fuel cells, such as those constructed by William White Jaques (who incidentally coined the term fuel cell), substituted phosphoric acid H₂P₂O₄ in the electrolyte bath.

• Perhaps the most important fuel cell research of the 20th century was done by Dr. Francis T. Bacon. He is a direct descendent of the Francis Bacon who developed the Bacon Cell.

• Dr. Bacon substituted an acid electrolyte with an alkali electrolyte (potassium hydroxide - KOH).
• KOH performs as well as an acid in being an electrolyte and is not as corrosive on the electrodes.
• The Bacon design was chosen by NASA for the power supply in the Apollo mission and for the STS shuttle orbiters.

• Significant fuel cell research was done in Germany during the 1920's that laid the groundwork for development of the carbonate cycle and solid oxide fuel cells.

• Fuel cells operate in reverse of electrolysis. In a fuel cell, hydrogen fuel and an oxidizer (oxygen) stream, pass through porous metal plates separated in an electrolyte bath.

• The plates have a single electrical connection to each other, which is outside of the electrolyte bath.
• The hydrogen plate operates as an anode, converting the hydrogen molecule into hydrogen ions and electrons.
• Electrons flow along a wire connected to the cathode plate and the ions migrate into the electrolyte bath.
• On the cathode side, oxygen molecules are broken into oxygen atoms.
• They combine with the hydrogen ions and anode electrons to create water and heat.

• Electricity can be captured from the anode/cathode circuit and put to useful work.

• Water and heat are expelled from the electrolyte bath as steam, which can be utilized separately or recycled into the fuel and oxidizer streams.

• This is the most commercially developed type of fuel cell. It is already being used in such diverse applications as hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, schools, utility power plants, and an airport terminal.
• Phosphoric acid fuel cells generate electricity at more than 40% efficiency -- and nearly 85% if steam this fuel cell produces is used for cogeneration -- compared to 30% for the most efficient internal combustion engine (Online Information - Ballard).
• Operating temperatures are in the range of 400 degrees F.
• These fuel cells also can be used in larger vehicles, such as buses and locomotives.

• These cells operate at relatively low temperatures (about 200 degrees F).
• They have high power density.
• They can vary their output quickly to meet shifts in power demand.
• They are suited for applications, -- such as in automobiles -- where quick startup is required.
• According to the U.S. Department of Energy, "They are the primary candidates for light-duty vehicles, for buildings, and potentially for much smaller applications such as replacements for rechargeable batteries in video cameras" (Page 45).

• Molten carbonate fuel cells promise high fuel-to-electricity efficiencies and the ability to consume coal-based fuels.
• This cell operates at about 1,200 degrees F.
• The first full-scale molten carbonate stacks have been tested, and demonstration units have been built in Calafornia.

• The solid oxide fuel cell could be used in big, high -power applications including industrial and large-scale central electricity generating stations.
• Some developers also see solid oxide use in motor vehicles. A 100-kilowatt test is being readied in Europe.
• Two small, 25-kilowatt units are already on line in Japan.
• A solid oxide system usually uses a hard ceramic material instead of a liquid electrolyte, allowing operating temperatures to reach 1,800 degrees F.
• Power generating efficiencies could reach 60%. One type of solid oxide fuel cell uses an array of meter-long tubes. Other variations include a compressed disc that resembles the top of a soup can (Online Information – UCSUSA).

• Long used by NASA on space missions, these cells can achieve power generating efficiencies of up to 70 percent (Online Information – UCSUSA).
• They use alkaline potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte.
• Until recently they were too costly for commercial applications, but several companies are examining ways to reduce costs and improve operating flexibility.

• These are a relatively new member of the fuel cell family.
• These cells are similar to the PEM cells in that they both use a polymer membrane as the electrolyte.
• However, in the DMFC, the anode catalyst itself draws the hydrogen from the liquid methanol, eliminating the need for a fuel reformer.
• Efficiencies of about 40% are expected with this type of fuel cell, which would typically operate at a temperature between 120-190 degrees F (Online Information – UCSUSA).
• Higher efficiencies are achieved at higher temperatures.

• Still a very young member of the fuel cell family.
• Regenerative fuel cells would be attractive as a closed-loop form of power generation.
• Water is separated into hydrogen and oxygen by a solar-powered electrolyser.
• The hydrogen and oxygen are fed into the fuel cell, which generates electricity, heat and water.
• The water is then recirculated back to the solar-powered electrolyser and the process begins again.
• These types of fuel cells are currently being researched by NASA and others worldwide.

• A cleaner means of transportation
• Engines that are far more efficient than the conventional combustion engine.
• Possibly longer distances between fill ups than a conventional car, with upcoming technology.

• Fuel cells need several minutes of warming up to obtain enough power to drive, where as a combustion engine needs no time at all.
• The compressors that make the cars work are very noisy.
• There will need to be a huge infrastructure created in order for the idea of the fuel cell car to work because currently there is no where for them to fuel up.
• Hydrogen has a very low boiling point and is extremely explosive, thus it is not the ideal fuel for a fuel cell car.

• Platinum used in the manufacturing of fuel cells is very costly.

• Fuel cell companies along with petroleum companies (namely Shell, Texaco, and Arco) are trying to develop ways in which to break down substances such as methanol in order to obtain the hydrogen needed to run the cars.
• Small chemical "reformers" as they are called, strip the hydrogen from the hydrocarbon fuels.
• By breaking down compounds to obtain hydrogen, hydrogen gas itself will not need to be carried by the vehicles making them safer.
• Cars that use methanol instead of pure hydrogen are not "Zero-emission" , they release a small amount of CO and CO₂.

• Has a 25% stake in Ballard and works closely with them in their advances (Anonymous 66).
• Daimler-Chrysler has been experimenting with fuel cell cars for over five years.
• Their first attempts were van-like vehicles filled with the equipment need to make the vehicles run.

• The race for developing the first fuel cell car ended March 17, 1999. with the introduction of Necar 4 .
• The Necar 4 is a Mercedes small A-class car, one of the smallest cars on the road.
• Can carry five adults.
• Has a raised floor under which all the mechanical components lay.
• Is able to reach a top speed of 90 mph (Online Information – Ballard).

• Can travel for a distance of approximately 280 miles (Online Information – Ballard).

• Fuel cells in homes would not only make electricity but would also be used for heating.
• Only 40-45% of the fuel’s chemical energy is converted to electricity in a typical home unit, the rest is turned into heat (Wardell 32).
• Water created as the by-product of the fuel cell can be used domestically.
• Hydrogen Burner Technology of Long Beach, CA, is working on fuel cell that will use natural gas, fuel oil, or gasoline to produce electricity. Their current units will produce 2 to 10 kilowatts of electricity and create enough heat to heat an average home and the domestic hot water needed.
• Home units have no moving parts and require no maintenance.
• Current models are as much as 90% efficient – approx. 20% more than that which is being produced in power plants (Wardell 32).
• Fuel cell systems for the home will be available to the homeowner by 2003 and will cost $3,000 - $6,000 depending on size and options.
• The size of the system is no bigger than the typical home furnace.
• Costs for fuel are around 8 cents/kilowatt hour using natural gas.

• New York Power Authority (NYPA) is using fuel cells to power what was an under powered police station in NYC.
• The police station chose fuel cells to avoid a $1.2 million service upgrade.
• The plant uses natural gas as a fuel.
• The system is used for both electricity and heat, and also charges their electric patrol cars.

• Physicist Robert Hockaday is working on his own in hopes of developing a fuel cell small enough to fit in a cell phone or lap top computer.
• He is doing this by using computer chip printing techniques.
• The new fuel cells are expected to last approx. 50 times longer than NiCD batteries.
• This could mean a cell phone could remain on standby for 40 days or could be talked on for 200 hours with one battery (Online Information – Gaia Books).
• Refueling for these batteries involves merely pouring methanol into the fuel cell.
• The batteries are expected to last for four years before they are not able to be "recharged".

• One of the world’s largest suppliers of fuel cell power units.

• The leader in fuel cell technology and supplier for Daimler-Chrysler and Ford Motor Companies.

• Ballard started out as a contract-research laboratory working for the Canadian defense ministry among others.
• Ballard is the supplier of choice for six of the top ten car manufactures in the world.

• They are currently concentrating on four products in three markets.
• A fuel cell system for cars.
• A system for busses and bigger vehicles.
• Systems for generators.

• The ability to produce a fuel cell small enough for portable applications.

• Their address is: 107-980 West 1st Street, North Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V7P 3N4. Telephone: (604)-986-9367 Fax: (604)-986-3262.

• Located in South Windsor, Connecticut. This company is a subsidiary of United Technologies of Hartford, Connecticut.
• They made the fuel cells that flew on the Apollo missions and ride on the Shuttles.
• They market fuel cells under their own name and provide components for other manufacturers such as Toshiba in Japan and Ansoldo, s.p.a of Italy.
• International Fuel Cell's ONSI Subsidiary is presently producing a 200kW fuel cell power plant designed for on-site energy to commercial buildings.
• The ONSI 200kW product is called the PC25 and is the first, and so far the only fuel cell available commercially.
• For information contact Mr. Gregory Sandelli at (860)-727-2348 Fax: (860)-727-2319

• Located in West Palm Beach, Florida. Telephone: (407)-688-5001 Fax: (407)-688-9610

• This company is doing some very interesting work in both fundamentals and applications.
• They have a working model of a hydrogen powered fuel cell car and will send you a photo and specs if you request it.
• EP is also working on graphite electrode fuel cells a real breakthrough on the economic front.

• Located in Danbury, Connecticut. Telephone: (203)-792-1460 Fax: (203)-798-2945
• ERC is a publicly traded corporation and is listed in the Small Capitalization section of NASDAQ.

• ERC's focus is on carbonate cycle fuel cells.
• These use methane as a fuel and use molten sodium carbonate, NACO₃, as the electrolyte.
• They operate at higher temperatures than hydrogen only fuel cells and are intended for stationary power applications.
• Typically their fuel cells range from a few hundred kilowatts up to 50 megawatts.
• They are focused to replace diesel and gas turbine supplementary systems.

• Their focus is similar to ERC's.
• MC stands for Molten Carbonate Westinghouse Electric Corp - Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
• Westinghouse's focus is on Solid Oxide electrode fuel cells. The solid oxide is cubic zirconia (ZrO2).
• These cells are intended to use pulverized coal and are focused in the 200 to 500 MW range, replacing current coal fired turbine stations.
• For more information call (312)-555-1212.

• A PEM fuel cell company.
• They manufacture small 50-100W fuel cells.
• They will soon be manufacturing 500W units.
• Contact ElectroChem, Inc., 400 W. Cummings Park, Woburn, MA 01801 Telephone: (617)938-5300 Fax: (617) 935-6966

• Located in Washington, D.C., Telephone: (301)-681-3532 Fax (301)-681-4896.
• This is an international organization with corporate members from North America, Europe and South Africa.

• Located in Palo Alto, California.
• EPRI is focused on the entire electric power industry with fuel cells being a small but growing part of their company.

• They are doing some very exciting work in the Los Angeles Basin along with regional and state authorities on stationary fuel cell power plants.

• Located in Washington, D.C., Telephone: (202)-223-5547 Fax: (202)-223-5537
• The NHA is an industry trade association and interested in all facets of the hydrogen industry including fuel cells.